The talks between Bhutan and China held in October 2023 to formally demarcate their borders has not prevented Beijing from continuing illegal construction in north Bhutan’s Jakarlung Valley. This is taking place despite the fact that in 1998, China had inked a formal agreement with Bhutan to not to alter the status quo in disputed areas.
Jakarlung lies only 50km from Bhutan’s eastern border with Arunachal Pradesh in India. Jakarlung adjoins Beyul Khenpajong, an important cultural and religious area for Bhutanese. In fact, the royal Bhutanese family traces its ancestral heritage to Beyul Khenpajong.
Satellite images available in public domain after the border talks have shown China’s scaled-up presence in Jakarlung over the last two years. At present, one can see ongoing construction of at least 129 residential buildings in one settlement and at least 62 in another enclave. In 2021, none of these buildings existed. “This is a case of China making a claim to an area, based on earlier grazing practices by herders, that is very recent and without precedent – and then unilaterally seizing the territory and settling it with villages, military barracks and outposts,” says Professor Robert Barnett, an expert on Tibetan history at the University of London. Barnett further claims that the Chinese authorities have been “recruiting” Tibetans to move to these new locations.
China claims over nearly 764 sq km in Bhutan. Originally, this dispute was a part of border negotiations between India and China. Direct dialogues between China and Bhutan were initiated in 1984. Since then, the two countries have held 24 rounds of talks and a dozen rounds of expert group meetings focussed on Jakarlung and Pasamlung areas in north, and the Doklam area in west. Unfortunately, the Royal Bhutan Army does not have the capacity to push the Chinese forces back or stop the construction activity. This means the new outposts in Jakarlung may become permanent Chinese territory.
Recently, Bhutan stepped up its efforts at communication with China to end the country’s incursions into its territory. In October 2023, in a first, Bhutanese foreign minister Tandi Dorji travelled to Beijing. Dr. Dorji and Sun Weidong, vice-foreign minister of China, signed a Cooperation Agreement, outlining the functioning of a Joint Technical Team (JTT) on the “Delimitation and Demarcation of the Bhutan-China Boundary”.
But the construction activity has come as a setback to these efforts. For India as well, this is a cause for great concern. Until as recently as 2007, New Delhi guided Thimphu’s foreign policy in exchange for free-trade and security arrangements. In turn, Bhutan served as a buffer state with China.
China’s ‘salami slicing’ and India
In October, Bhutanese Prime Minister Lotay Tshering told an Indian media outlet that they hope to see a firm border with China soon. However, Tshering did not deny the possibility of Beijing and Thimphu agreeing to a land swap – between Jakarlung and the neighbouring Menchuma Valley with the Doklam plateau.
In 2017, India and China were involved in a tense two-month-long standoff in Doklam, where Indian troops prevented the extension of an illegal Chinese road. Since then, China has constructed at least three villages along the valley. India considers the Doklam plateau as Bhutanese territory.
According to experts, any China-Bhutan deal involving a swap between areas to the north (Jamparlung and Pasamlung valleys) with Doklam to the west would be of concern to India, as the region is close to India’s narrow “Siliguri corridor”. This 22km stretch, commonly known as the Chicken’s Neck, lies between Nepal and Bangladesh and connects continental India to its seven north-eastern states.
Border tensions have also remained high since 2020, after the Chinese troops transgressed along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) in India. The skirmish led to the death of 20 Indian and four Chinese soldiers. Further, in June 2020, China claimed the Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary in Bhutan as its own. This region also shares borders with Arunachal Pradesh. India’s first Chief of Defence Staff, General Bipin Rawat, has described China’s standard tactic of occupying foreign or disputed land as “salami-slicing”.
Tshering disclosed to The Hindu that Bhutan and China were “inching towards the completion” of a three-step road map on boundary delineation. Regarding Bhutan’s position on opening diplomatic ties with China, he remained non-committal. Tshering also declared that no agreement would be made “against India’s interests” and that any talks about Doklam would be held trilaterally, between India, Bhutan, and China.
Cartographic aggression
Of the 14 countries with which China shares borders, 12 have settled their disputes. Disputes with only Bhutan and India remain. However, China has maritime territorial conflicts with most of its neighbours, including South Korea, Japan, Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia, Brunei, and Malaysia. Also, China considers Taiwan as its own territory.
As far as India is concerned, China has never accepted India’s demarcation lines on the border. British India’s proposal of the Johnson-Ardagh Line along the Kunlun range, which kept Aksai Chin within India, was not acceptable to Imperial China. Republican China rejected British India’s McMahon Line, which demarcated India’s border with Tibet. After the Indo-China war of 1962, LAC has become the de facto border between India and China.
Just in August of 2023, a new Chinese map showed Arunachal Pradesh and Aksai Chin plateau as being within China. India then lodged a strong diplomatic protest with China. China has also been on a “renaming” spree. It has renamed a total of 32 places in Arunachal Pradesh in the last few years.
The latest map didn’t disturb only India. In fact, the Philippines, Malaysia, Vietnam, and Taiwan, all of which have territorial disputes with China, have objected to the 2023 version of the Chinese map and the country’s practice of “cartographic aggression”.
The map reaffirmed Beijing’s claims over almost the entire South China Sea. Annual trade worth trillions of dollars flows through this region. Experts believe the Chinese navy and coast guard will now assert Chinese sovereignty and jurisdiction based on this new map. Earlier, China had constructed various units on disputed islands and intimidated planes and ships from other countries, especially the US.
In 2016, an international tribunal ruling rejected Beijing’s South China Sea claims. China did not participate in the proceedings and has never accepted the ruling.
Further, China has labelled Japan’s Senkaku Islands as Diaoyu Islands on the new map. The map has also incorporated into China the entire island of Bolshoi Ussuriysky along the Russia-China border. This island was partitioned between the two countries in 2008. So, even countries that share friendly relations with China, such as Russia, have taken note of China’s latest map.
According to experts, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), which claims to be the guarantor of China’s resurrection after a “century of humiliation”, produces such maps at regular intervals to ensure domestic support for its continued rule over China. This is especially important now, when China’s economy and international reputation are headed for trouble. Clearly, with China’s efforts to claim other countries’ territories, India needs to think long term about its border with China. Military preparedness, infrastructure build-up, the facilitation and development of population settlements in border areas, and the strengthening of its cartographic narrative are the need of the hour.
Author
